General Characteristics of The Age of Transition:
Revival of Romance:
- Horace Walpole pioneered medievalism with his Gothic castle transformation.
- Notable works include Walpole's "The Castle of Otranto," Clara Reeve's "Old English," Ann Radcliffe's "Romance of the Forest," and Mathew Gregory Lewis's "Ambrosio" or "The Monk."
- Return to the romantic Middle Ages by novelists during the age of Johnson.
Verse:
- Age characterized by a struggle between old (classical) and new (romantic) poetry.
- Classical poetry: town-based, lacking romantic spirit, formal, and artificial in style with closed couplets.
- Romantic spirit brought changes: emphasis on the picturesque, simple language, and nature.
- Reaction against classical tradition led to the abandonment of the Popean couplet in favor of other verse forms like blank verse.
- Notable works include Johnson's "The Vanity of Human Wishes," Somerville's "The Chase," Young's "Night Thoughts," and Akenside's "The Pleasure of the Imagination."
Continuance of the Augustan Tradition:
- Johnson and Goldsmith upheld conservative literary theory, clinging to the Augustan past.
- Goldsmith believed writers of the Augustan age set the standard for future literature.
- Johnson's "London" and Goldsmith's "The Traveler" and "The Deserted Village" exemplify this tradition.
Growth of Love for Nature:
- Marked shift towards a love for nature and the picturesque between Pope and Wordsworth.
- Notable poets include Thomas Parnell, Lady Coinchilsea, Allan Ramsay, and John Dyer, showcasing genuine appreciation for rural life and natural beauty.
Development of Naturalism:
- Emphasis on bringing poetry back to nature and reality, stressing the picturesque and country life.
- William Blake and George Crabbe exemplify naturalistic poetry, expressing love for the country and individuality.
- Romantic movement characterized by spontaneity in literature, asserting individuality against conventions.
Romantic Movement:
- Romanticism as part of the 18th-century movement for individual emancipation in literature.
- Victor Hugo described it as "liberalism in literature," while Mr. Watts-Dunton defined it as "the renaissance of wonder and mystery."
- Notable works include Keats' "Endymion," Thomas Gray's "Elegy," Bishop Percy's "Reliques," and Macpherson's "Ossianic" poems.
- Revival of the romantic past peaked between 1760 and 1770 with works like Hurd's "Letters on Chivalry and Romance," Walpole's "The Castle of O tranto," and Percy's "Reliques."
Literary Forms and Features of the Romantic Age
Introduction:
- The Romantic Age in English literature emerged in the late 18th century and peaked from 1800 to 1850.
- Rooted in the ideals of nationalism, democracy, liberty, and the individual spirit.
- Influenced by the American Declaration of Independence (1776) and the French Revolution (1789-1799) with its ideals of “Liberty, Equality, and Fraternity”.
- Romanticism varied in definition and implication across different countries, with terms like "romantic" and "romantique" having distinct connotations in English and French respectively.
Context in England:
- Coincided with the Industrial Revolution and England's economic prosperity as “the workshop of the world”.
- Wealth disparity led to socio-economic challenges for the working classes, eventually prompting reforms.
- Significant intellectual reaction against Enlightenment philosophy that prioritized science, reason, and skepticism.
Key Features of Romanticism:
1. Emphasis on Individuality and Subjectivity
- Celebrated one's creative gifts and personal experiences.
- Contrasted with the neoclassical ideals that emphasized order, restraint, and universal truths.
2. Reaction against Enlightenment Ideals
- Prioritized emotion over reason.
- Valued imagination over rationality.
- Believed empirical knowledge couldn't reveal life's mysteries.
3. Promotion of Passion, Imagination, and Freedom
- Championed virtues of passion, imagination, and personal freedom.
- Emphasized sensory experiences and spiritual connections.
4. Fascination with the Supernatural and the Exotic
- Interest in myths, the gothic, and exotic cultures.
- Devotion to exploring the unknown and mysterious.
5. Devotion to Beauty and Nature
- Reverence for natural landscapes and phenomena.
- Love for rural, countryside settings as opposed to urban life's challenges.
Conclusion:
- Romantic literature reflected the new spirit of the age, extolling the worth and significance of the ‘individual’.
- The Romantic Age offered a rich tapestry of literary forms and features that celebrated emotion, imagination, nature, and personal freedom, diverging from the rational and empirical focus of the Enlightenment era.
Major Prose Writing of the Age: Periodical Essay and Literary Criticism
- Periodicals: Established a "print culture" in England during the eighteenth century.
- Coffee-house Culture: Coffee-houses like those frequented by Richard Steele and Joseph Addison circulated newspapers such as The Spectator and The Tattler.
- Newspapers: Examples include The Examiner (poetry, literary criticism, politics) and The Spectator (socio-politics, culture).
- Reviews Notable reviews were the Edinburgh Review, Quarterly Review, Westminster Review, Critical Review, Monthly Review, and Edinburgh Review. They covered various subjects, including literature.
- Magazines: Popular magazines like Gentleman’s Magazine (true crime stories) and Ladies’ Diary (history, geography, gossip) catered to different readerships.
- Literary Magazines: The Athenaeum, Blackwood’s Edinburgh Magazine London Magazine, and New Monthly Magazine were prominent, featuring leading writers of the time and publishing notable works.
- Three Distinct Forms of Romantic Essay:
1. Political Essay: Focused on political aspects, e.g., Coleridge's essays in Morning Post and Courier.
2. Familiar Essay: Personal essays on various topics, e.g., Lamb's Essays of Elia, Hazlitt's essays on romantic travels.
3. Historical-Cultural Review: E.g., Thomas Carlyle’s “The Sign of the Times”.
- Fiction:
- Novels: Emerged prominently between 1770 to 1830.
- Major Novelists: Jane Austen, Burney, Maria Edgeworth, Ann Radcliffe, Walter Scott, Mary Shelley.
- Significant Women Novelists: Jane Porter, Frances Burney, Susan Ferrier.
- Gothic and Sensational Novels: Included works like The Mysteries of Udolpho, Vathek, Caleb Williams, The Monk, Frankenstein, Northanger Abbey, and Nightmare Abbey.
- Realistic Novels: Jane Austen's works provided realistic portrayals of English life.
- Regional Novels: Works like Maria Edgeworth’s Castle Rackrent and Sydney Owenson’s The Wild Irish Girl: A National Tale were set in specific locales like Ireland.
Lake Poets:
- Location: The Lake District in North West England, a scenic area inspiring the Romantic poets.
- Leading Figures: William Wordsworth, Samuel Taylor Coleridge, Robert Southey.
- Associated Poets/Writers: Dorothy Wordsworth, Charles Lloyd, Hartley Coleridge, John Wilson, Thomas De Quincey.
- Inspired Writers (Not Part of Lake Poets): Felicia Hemans, Walter Scott, James Payn, Bryan Procter, Norman Nicholson.
Conclusion
The Romantic Age was characterized by its ideals, features, and cultural history. It was an intellectual movement that significantly contributed to English Literature, offering diverse literary forms and practices.
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