The Piano and Drums

 "The Piano and the Drums" by Gabriel Okara is a captivating poem that juxtaposes the primal rhythms of jungle drums with the complex melodies of a piano to explore themes of cultural identity, tradition, modernity, and the conflict between simplicity and complexity. Here's a critical analysis of the poem:

1. Structure and Form

The poem is structured in free verse, without a consistent rhyme scheme or meter. This formlessness reflects the fluidity and complexity of the themes explored, allowing for a natural and organic flow of imagery and emotion.

2. Themes

   - Cultural Identity and Tradition: The poem contrasts the primal, raw rhythms of jungle drums with the sophisticated and complex melodies of a piano, symbolizing the clash between traditional and modern cultures, and the struggle to reconcile one's cultural heritage with the influences of the modern world.

   

   - Simplicity vs. Complexity: The poem explores the tension between simplicity and complexity, both in terms of music and life itself. The primal rhythms of the jungle drums represent simplicity, nature, and instinct, while the intricate melodies of the piano symbolize complexity, culture, and civilization.

   

   - Memory and Nostalgia

 The poem evokes a sense of nostalgia and longing for the past, as the speaker is transported back to his childhood and ancestral roots by the sound of the jungle drums, contrasting with the disorienting and alienating experience of the piano's complex melodies.

3. Imagery and Symbolism: Okara employs vivid imagery and symbolism throughout the poem to convey the speaker's sensory experiences and emotions. Images of "jungle drums telegraphing," "primal youth," "bleeding flesh," and "wailing piano" evoke powerful sensations and emotions, highlighting the contrast between the natural and the artificial, the primitive and the civilized.

4. Language and Tone: The language of the poem is rich and evocative, with a blend of sensory imagery, metaphor, and symbolism. The tone shifts from one of excitement and exhilaration to one of confusion and disorientation, reflecting the speaker's journey from the familiar and comforting rhythms of his cultural heritage to the alienating and perplexing complexities of modernity.

 "The Piano and the Drums" is a thought-provoking exploration of cultural identity, tradition, modernity, and the human experience. Through its vivid imagery, symbolism, and emotional depth, Okara's poem invites readers to reflect on the complexities of navigating between tradition and modernity, the tension between simplicity and complexity, and the profound impact of music and cultural heritage on individual ident ity and memory.

You Laughed and Laughed and Laughed

 "You Laughed and Laughed and Laughed" by Gabriel Okara is a poignant poem that explores themes of misunderstanding, cultural difference, resilience, and the transformative power of genuine emotion. Here's a critical analysis of the poem:

1. Structure and Form: The poem is structured in a repetitive manner, with the refrain "and you laughed and laughed and laughed" emphasizing the relentless mockery and dismissal faced by the speaker. This repetition underscores the poem's central theme and heightens its emotional impact.

2. Themes:

   - Misunderstanding and Mockery: The poem highlights the speaker's experience of being misunderstood and ridiculed by others who fail to appreciate or respect his culture, art, and identity.

   

   - Resilience and Authenticity

Despite facing ridicule, the speaker remains true to himself and his heritage. His "magic dance" and "mystic inside" represent his cultural roots, resilience, and refusal to be silenced or diminished by others' laughter.

   

   - Transformation and Empowerment: The poem concludes with a powerful transformation, where the speaker's genuine laughter, representing the "fire of the eye of the sky" and the "living warmth of the earth," melts the frozen insides of those who mocked him, symbolizing the transformative and empowering nature of authentic emotion and cultural pride.

3. Imagery and Symbolism: Okara employs vivid imagery and symbolism throughout the poem to convey the speaker's experience and emotions. Images of "motor car misfiring," "ice-block laughter," and "fire of the eye of the sky" are used to contrast the artificial and cold laughter of the mocker with the genuine and powerful laughter of the speaker.

4. Language and Tone: The language of the poem is straightforward and accessible, yet rich in symbolism and emotion. The tone shifts from one of hurt and frustration to one of empowerment and triumph, reflecting the speaker's journey from being mocked to asserting his identity and cultural pride.

     "You Laughed and Laughed and Laughed" is a powerful exploration of cultural misunderstanding, resilience, and the transformative power of authentic emotion and identity. Through its vivid imagery, symbolism, and emotional depth, Okara's poem invites readers to reflect on the importance of understanding, respect, and acceptance of cultural diversity and the profound impact of genuine connection and empathy.

Live Burial

 "Live Burial" by Wole Soyinka is a complex and evocative poem that delves into themes of oppression, truth, artistic integrity, and societal decay. Here's a critical analysis of the poem:

1. Structure and Form

 The poem is written in free verse, lacking a consistent rhyme scheme or meter. This formlessness mirrors the chaos and disarray described in the poem's content, emphasizing its themes.

2. Themes

   - Oppression

The poem portrays a society that oppresses its people, symbolized by the "live burial" and the siege against humanity and truth. This theme reflects on political and social injustices.

   

   - Truth and Art: Soyinka questions the nature of truth and fiction in art. He suggests that truth is the essence of art, blurring the lines between reality and fiction. The borrowing of the "poetic license" and the reference to Galileo and the sage highlight the conflict between truth-seekers and those who suppress or manipulate truth.

   

   - Decay and Corruption: Images of decay, such as the "cola slime" and "patterned grime," depict a society in decline, where moral and ethical values are eroding.

   

   - Voyeurism and Surveillance: The "voyeur" symbolizes the invasive nature of surveillance in society, where individuals are constantly monitored and controlled.

3. Imagery and Symbolism: Soyinka employs vivid and often grotesque imagery to convey the bleakness and decay of society. Symbols like "Guara'l The lizard," the "ghoul," and the "voyeur" represent various facets of oppression, corruption, and surveillance.

4. Language and Tone

The language of the poem is dense and multi-layered, requiring careful reading and interpretation. The tone is critical and satirical, highlighting the absurdity and hypocrisy of the society depicted.

     "Live Burial" is a powerful critique of societal oppression, decay, and the manipulation of truth. Through its intricate imagery, symbolism, and language, Soyinka offers a scathing commentary on the human condition, challenging readers to reflect on the consequences of unchecked power, corruption, and the erosion of truth and morality.

Vultures

 "Vultures" by Chinua Achebe is a haunting and thought-provoking poem that explores the complex nature of love, morality, and the coexistence of good and evil within human beings. Here's a critical analysis of the poem:

1. Structure and Form The poem is structured in free verse, with irregular line lengths and no consistent rhyme scheme or meter. This formlessness enhances the poem's raw and unsettling atmosphere, reflecting the dark and disturbing themes explored.

2. Themes

   - Dual Nature of Humanity The poem juxtaposes the brutal, predatory behavior of vultures with the tenderness and love displayed by the vulture towards its mate and the Commandant at Belsen Camp towards his offspring. This juxtaposition highlights the coexistence of cruelty and compassion within human beings, suggesting that even the most monstrous individuals are capable of love and tenderness.

   

   - Morality and Ethics: Achebe explores the complexities of morality and ethics, questioning the nature of good and evil and challenging traditional notions of right and wrong. The poem suggests that love and tenderness can exist alongside cruelty and brutality, complicating our understanding of morality and challenging us to confront the darker aspects of human nature.

   

   - Nature vs. Civilization: The poem contrasts the natural, instinctual behavior of the vultures with the calculated, civilized cruelty of the Commandant, highlighting the tension between nature and civilization and questioning the extent to which human beings have evolved beyond their primal instincts.

3. Imagery and Symbolism

 Achebe employs vivid and unsettling imagery throughout the poem to convey the brutality of the vultures' actions and the disturbing juxtaposition of love and cruelty. Images of "broken bones," "swollen corpse," "charnel-house," and "human roast" evoke powerful sensations and emotions, creating a haunting and unsettling atmosphere.

4. Language and Tone The language of the poem is stark, concise, and devoid of sentimentality, reflecting the poem's dark and unsettling themes. The tone is somber and contemplative, with moments of irony and ambiguity, inviting readers to reflect on the complexities of human nature and the moral implications of love and tenderness coexisting with cruelty and evil.

    "Vultures" is a powerful and thought-provoking exploration of the complexities of human nature, morality, and the coexistence of love and cruelty. Through its vivid imagery, symbolism, and stark language, Achebe's poem challenges readers to confront the darker aspects of human nature, question traditional notions of morality, and reflect on the profound implications of love and tenderness existing alongside cr uelty and evil.

To The Negro American Soldier

 TO THE NEGRO-AMERICAN SOLDIERS

………………………………………………………………For Mercer Cook

I did not recognize you in prison under your

………..sad-colored uniform

I did not recognize you under the calabash helmet

………..without style

I did not recognize the whining sound of your

………..iron horses, who drink but do not eat.

And it is no longer the nobility of elephants, it is the

………..the barbaric weight of the prehistoric

………..monsters of the world.

Under your closed face, I did not recognize you.

I only touched the warmth of your brown hand,

………..I called myself “Afrika! ”

And I found once again the lost laughter, I hailed the ancient voices

………..and the roar of Congo waterfalls.

Brothers, I do not know whether you bombed the

………..cathedrals, the pride of Europe,

If you are the lightning of God’s hand that burned

………..Sodom and Gomorrah.

No, you are the messengers of his mercy, the

………..Spring after Winter.

To those who had forgotten how to laugh-only

………..smile obliquely

Who knew nothing but the savory flavor of

………..tears and the vexing stench of blood

You bring the Season of Peace and hope to

………..end of the delay.

And their night is filled with milky sweetness, the blue

………..fields of the sky are covered with flowers, silence sings

………..soothingly.

You bring them the sun. The air beats with whispers

………..liquids and crystalline chirping and beating

………..silky wings

The aerial cities are tepid with nests.

Through the streets joy streamed, the boys play with

………..their dreams

Men dance before of their machines and

………..surprised themselves singing.

Schoolgirls’s eyelids are rose petals, and

………..fruits ripen in the virgins’ breasts

And the women’s hips—Oh, sweetness—

………..grow generously heavy.

Black brothers, warriors whose mouths are flowers that

………..sing

—Oh! the delight to live after Winter—I salute you

………..like messengers of peace. 

To the Negro American Soldier by Léopold Sédar Senghor is a poignant and evocative poem that addresses the experiences of African-American soldiers during World War II. Here's a critical analysis of the poem:

1. Themes of Identity and Unity: One of the central themes of the poem is the exploration of identity and unity among people of African descent. Senghor emphasizes the shared heritage and experiences that connect African Americans with their African roots. This theme aligns with Senghor's broader philosophy of Negritude, which celebrates black culture, heritage, and identity.

2. Celebration of Courage and Sacrifice: The poem pays tribute to the bravery and sacrifices of African-American soldiers who fought in World War II. Senghor highlights the physical and emotional toll of war, as well as the challenges faced by these soldiers due to racial discrimination and prejudice. By acknowledging their contributions, the poem serves as a reminder of the often overlooked role of black soldiers in shaping history.

3. Critique of Racial Injustice: While celebrating the resilience and strength of African-American soldiers, Senghor also critiques the racial injustice and inequality that they faced both during the war and upon their return home. The poem sheds light on the hypocrisy of fighting for freedom and democracy abroad while denying these rights to black Americans at home.

4. Senghor's Poetic Style: Senghor's poetic style in this poem is characterized by vivid imagery, emotive language, and a rhythmic flow. His use of symbolism, metaphor, and repetition helps to convey the depth of the soldiers' experiences and the broader themes of identity, unity, and resilience.

In conclusion,To the Negro American Soldier by Léopold Sédar Senghor is a powerful and thought-provoking poem that addresses the complex and often contradictory experiences of African-American soldiers during World War II. Through his exploration of identity, unity, courage, and racial injustice, Senghor offers a compelling commentary on the broader issues of race, heritage, and equality that continue to reson ate today.

20th Century Literature

 Major Literary Trends During the 20th Century

1. Modernism and Post-Modernism: These were major trends in 20th-century literature that emerged due to changes in industry, science, and technology, leading to experimentation with new forms of expression and styles.

2. Australian Poetry:

   - Originated from shared jokes and anecdotes, which later incorporated rhyme and meter.

   - Early Australian poetry was a cathartic release for inmates expressing emotions they couldn't voice publicly.

   - Themes of melancholy and empathy for others were prevalent.

   - Bush Ballads emerged from convict origins, representing Australian culture and history.

   - Notable poets: Michale Massey Robinson, George Barrington, Frank the Poet, Henry Lawson, and Andrew ‘Banjo’ Paterson.

3. Australian Identity:

   - Late to connect with other countries due to geographical isolation.

   - Poets fantasized about Australia’s future and identity.

   - Emphasis on Australia's scenery, less on its people and character.

   - Notable poets: Bernard O’Dowd, W.C. Wentworth, Dorothea Mackellar, Adam Linsay Gordon, Henry Kendall, Christopher Brennan.

4. Modernist and Postwar Australian Poetry:

   - Kenneth Slessor and R.D. Fitz Gerald ushered in modernism.

   - Literary groups like the Jindyworobaks and Angry Penguins promoted Australian identity and experimental approaches.

   - Postwar literary figures: A.D. Hope, Judith Wright, with a focus on social, moral concerns, and realism.

5. Aboriginal Australian Literature:

   - Emerged significantly in the 1960s, raising political concerns and injustices against Aboriginals.

   - Poets like Oodegeroo Noonuccal, Kevin Gilbert, Colin Johnson, Jack Davis, Graham Dixon, Robert Walker made significant contributions.

6. Twentieth Century Literary Forms/Genres:

   - Edwardian Literature (1900–1911): Bridged Victorian tradition and modernism. Notable writers: Arnold Bennett, Joseph Conrad, George Bernard Shaw.

   - Modernism: Diverse movement emphasizing rhythms, internal structures of language, and disillusioning realities.

   - Existentialism (1940s–1990s): Explored human existence in a meaningless universe. Notable writers: Albert Camus, Jean-Paul Sartre, Michael Ende, Chuck Palahniuk.

   - Expansive Poetry (1980s–1990s): Moved beyond traditional free-verse and explored measured speech, rhyme, and narrative.

   - Expressionism (1910s–1920s): Used unconventional grammar, symbolic imagery, bold exaggerations. Notable writers: Georg Kaiser, Ernst Toller, Eugene O’Neill, Elmer Rice.

   - Harlem Renaissance (1920s–1930s): African-American writers emphasizing civil rights and equality. Notable writers: Alain Locke, Langston Hughes, Zora Neale Hurston.

   - Naturalism (1860s–1910s): Explored human behavior scientifically and objectively. Notable writers: Émile Zola, Stephen Crane, Theodore Dreiser.

   - Neo-Futurism (1980s–1990s): Focused on audience interaction and chance in performances. Notable group: Greg Allen's Chicago-based theater group.

These notes provide an overview of major literary trends, movements, and forms during the 20th century, highlighting key writers and their contributions  across different regions and genres.

Inter War Years Class Notes

 Unit 3

Interwar Years Literature: General Characteristics

Introduction:

- The Interwar Years followed WWI, leading to significant socio-political changes in Europe.

- Europe faced economic depression, political extremism, and the rise of totalitarian regimes.

- The League of Nations aimed to maintain peace but failed to prevent the outbreak of WWII.

- The period was characterized by sharp ideological divides, with extreme left and right viewpoints dominating.

Literature during WWI: Cultural Mobilization (1914-1918):

- Literature played a crucial role in shaping public opinion before and during WWI.

- Imagined invasion literature, like Sir George Chesney’s "The Battle of Dorking" (1871), heightened anticipation of war.

- The War Propaganda Bureau (WPB) in Britain engaged prominent writers like H.G. Wells, Thomas Hardy, and Arthur Conan Doyle to produce pro-war literature.

- Some authors produced realistic accounts, while others created propagandistic or speculative fiction.

  

Literature Responses Across Nations:

1. Britain:

   - Works like Wells’ "Mr Britling Sees It Through" (1916) depicted civilian life during the war.

   - Authors had varied responses to the war, from enthusiastic support to criticism of propaganda.

2. United States:

   - Initially, the war had limited public support, but this changed after the U.S. entered the war in 1917.

   - American authors like Edith Wharton and Upton Sinclair wrote about Americans in the war, reflecting diverse perspectives from pro-war to critical.

3. France:

   - France, being a major battleground, had widespread cultural mobilization.

   - Popular works like Barbusse’s "Le Feu" (1916) reflected the war’s horrors and were often interpreted in various ways, from naturalistic to pacifist.

4. Germany:

   - German literature during the war focused on defending German actions and values.

   - Notable figures like Thomas Mann supported the war, while others like Fritz von Unruh expressed anti-war sentiments.

5. Austria-Hungary:

   - The Austro-Hungarian response was varied due to its diverse cultural and linguistic makeup.

   - Writers like Robert Musil and Karl Kraus produced notable works reflecting on the war and its impact.

6. Russia:

   - Russian literature initially supported the war, but enthusiasm waned as the conflict continued.

   - Figures like Maxim Gorky signed manifestos supporting the war, but doubts and conflicts arose as the war progressed.

Conclusion:

- Interwar literature across Europe reflected diverse reactions to WWI, from initial enthusiasm to growing disillusionment.

- The literature of this period played a crucial role in shaping post-war understandings of the conflict and its impact on society.

Victorian Notes

 The Victorian Age in English Literature: Characteristics and Notable Authors

Introduction:

- Timeframe: 1837-1901 (Queen Victoria's reign)

- Significance: Period of significant social, historical, and technological changes in Britain.

  

Characteristics of the Victorian Period:

1. Socio-Economic Changes

   - Population nearly doubled; British Empire expanded.

   - Technological and industrial progress made Britain a global power.

   - Growing gap between rich and poor; moral decay evident due to materialism.

   - Landscape shifted from romantic countryside to industrialized cities.

2. Societal Morality

   - Strict moral codes enforced.

   - Harsh restrictions placed on women's conduct and roles.

   - Commercialization of marriage; women financially dependent on men.

3. Literary Transition

   - Transition from Romanticism to realism.

   - Rise of the novel as a dominant literary form.

   - Novels mirrored societal changes and moral dilemmas.

   - Novels addressed larger societal debates: women's roles, marriage, education, industrialization.

Notable Victorian Novelists and their Works:

1. Charles Dickens

   - Notable Works: Oliver Twist

Pickwick Papers

Bleak House

A Christmas Carol

David Copperfield

Great Expectations

   - Style: Social commentary, wit, satire; characters drawn from his own experiences and observations.

2. William Makepeace Thackeray 

   - Notable Works: 

Vanity Fair

 Pendennis

The History of Henry Esmond

Phillip

The New Comes

   - Style: Satirical; critical of Victorian middle-class values; characters often lacked typical hero qualities.

Conclusion:

- The Victorian Age was a period of contrasts, marked by prosperity and poverty, moral strictness, and societal change.

- Literature of this era reflected the complexities of Victorian society, blending realism with moral commentary.

- Dickens and Thackeray were two prominent novelists who captured the essence of the Victorian Age through th eir distinct styles and perspectives.

Women Novelists of the Victorian Era: Class Notes

---

1. Mrs. Gaskell (Elizabeth Gaskell)

   - Wrote novels and short stories reflecting social aspects of the 1850s.

   - Notable Works:

     - Mary Barton(1848): Highlighted daily life of the middle class in Manchester.

     - Cranford: Serialized novel edited by Dickens; focused on female characters.

     - North and South: Explored social reconciliation amidst societal divisions.

     - Other Works: Ruth, Sylvia’s Lovers, Wives and Daughters.

   - Known for her gothic style in some works.

2. George Eliot (Mary Ann Evans/Marian Evans)

   - Adopted pseudonym "George Eliot" to bypass female writer stereotypes.

   - Notable Works:

     - Adam Bede(1859): Psychological insights and realistic rural life depiction.

     - Mill on the Floss (1860): Life of Tom and Maggie Tulliver; historical and political references.

     - Middlemarch (1871): Complex characters; societal commentary; set in Midlands.

     - Other Works: Silas Marner, Romola, Felix Holt the Radical.

3. Bronte Sisters

   - Charlotte, Emily, and Anne Bronte, daughters of Patrick Bronte and Maria Bronte.

   - Family faced numerous tragedies; none lived past 40.

   - All educated at home; storytelling enthusiasts from childhood.

   - Charlotte Bronte

     - Notable Work: Jane Eyre(1847).

     - Feminist undertones; protagonist's life struggles and growth.

     - Highlighted themes of gender and societal norms through characters like Bertha Mason.

   - Emily Bronte

     - Sole Novel: Wuthering Heights(1847).

     - Used pseudonym "Ellis Bell"; real name revealed posthumously by Charlotte.

     - Love story of Heathcliff and Catherine Earnshaw.

   - Anne Bronte

     - Works: Agnes Grey(1847) and The Tenant of Wildfell Hall(1848).

     - Latter seen as feminist writing; protagonist, Helen Graham, challenges marital and societal norms.

General Insights:

   - Victorian Era witnessed a surge in women novelists due to rising literacy rates among women.

   - Women writers of the era addressed societal issues, often through the lens of female characters.

   - Bronte sisters' works, in particular, tackled larger societal questions, themes of love, passion, and are considered classics of literature.

   - The era's literature often mirrored the societal changes and challenges faced by women, making it both reflective and progressive.

Late Victorian Novelists: 

1. Thomas Hardy

   - Influences: Romanticism and Dickens' social commentary.

   - Notable Works:

     - Far from the Madding Crowd (1874)

     - The Mayor of Casterbridge (1886)

     - Tess of the d’Urbervilles (1891)

     - Jude the Obscure(1895)

   - Also recognized for his poetry.

   - Introduced fictional town of Wessex.

2. Wilkie Collins

   - Known for 'sensational' novels

   - Notable Works:

     - The Woman in White (1860)

     - The Moonstone (1868)

   - Focused on middle-class life.

- Anthony Trollope

   - Middle-class background.

   - Notable Works:

     - Phineas Finn (1869)

     - The Way we Live (1874)

4. Lewis Carroll

   - Published 'Alice’s Adventures in Wonderland'in 1865.

   - Distinguished by its child fiction genre.

   - Offered a dreamy world contrasting the realistic novels of the era.

5. Other Notable Novelists

   - George Gissing, George Moore, Samuel Butler, Henry James, Robert Louis Stevenson.

   - Rudyard Kipling: Focused on colonialism in India.

   - George Bernard Shaw and Oscar Wilde: Prominent writers of the time.

Overview of Victorian Period

- Novel's Rise 

  - Witnessed a transformation from romanticism to realism.

  - Captured the changing societal moods: politics, passion, optimism, and pessimism.

  - Explored themes of class, gender, individualism, and society.

- Societal Context:

  - Transition of Britain from agrarian to industrial landscape.

  - Novel became the dominant genre, addressing contemporary concerns and becoming influential for subsequent eras.

History Notes

 General Characteristics of The Age of Transition:

Revival of Romance:

- Horace Walpole pioneered medievalism with his Gothic castle transformation.

- Notable works include Walpole's "The Castle of Otranto," Clara Reeve's "Old English," Ann Radcliffe's "Romance of the Forest," and Mathew Gregory Lewis's "Ambrosio" or "The Monk."

- Return to the romantic Middle Ages by novelists during the age of Johnson.

Verse:

- Age characterized by a struggle between old (classical) and new (romantic) poetry.

- Classical poetry: town-based, lacking romantic spirit, formal, and artificial in style with closed couplets.

- Romantic spirit brought changes: emphasis on the picturesque, simple language, and nature.

- Reaction against classical tradition led to the abandonment of the Popean couplet in favor of other verse forms like blank verse.

- Notable works include Johnson's "The Vanity of Human Wishes," Somerville's "The Chase," Young's "Night Thoughts," and Akenside's "The Pleasure of the Imagination."

Continuance of the Augustan Tradition:

- Johnson and Goldsmith upheld conservative literary theory, clinging to the Augustan past.

- Goldsmith believed writers of the Augustan age set the standard for future literature.

- Johnson's "London" and Goldsmith's "The Traveler" and "The Deserted Village" exemplify this tradition.

Growth of Love for Nature:

- Marked shift towards a love for nature and the picturesque between Pope and Wordsworth.

- Notable poets include Thomas Parnell, Lady Coinchilsea, Allan Ramsay, and John Dyer, showcasing genuine appreciation for rural life and natural beauty.

Development of Naturalism:

- Emphasis on bringing poetry back to nature and reality, stressing the picturesque and country life.

- William Blake and George Crabbe exemplify naturalistic poetry, expressing love for the country and individuality.

- Romantic movement characterized by spontaneity in literature, asserting individuality against conventions.

Romantic Movement:

- Romanticism as part of the 18th-century movement for individual emancipation in literature.

- Victor Hugo described it as "liberalism in literature," while Mr. Watts-Dunton defined it as "the renaissance of wonder and mystery."

- Notable works include Keats' "Endymion," Thomas Gray's "Elegy," Bishop Percy's "Reliques," and Macpherson's "Ossianic" poems.

- Revival of the romantic past peaked between 1760 and 1770 with works like Hurd's "Letters on Chivalry and Romance," Walpole's "The Castle of O tranto," and Percy's "Reliques."

Literary Forms and Features of the Romantic Age

Introduction:

- The Romantic Age in English literature emerged in the late 18th century and peaked from 1800 to 1850.

- Rooted in the ideals of nationalism, democracy, liberty, and the individual spirit.

- Influenced by the American Declaration of Independence (1776) and the French Revolution (1789-1799) with its ideals of “Liberty, Equality, and Fraternity”.

- Romanticism varied in definition and implication across different countries, with terms like "romantic" and "romantique" having distinct connotations in English and French respectively.

  

Context in England:

- Coincided with the Industrial Revolution and England's economic prosperity as “the workshop of the world”.

- Wealth disparity led to socio-economic challenges for the working classes, eventually prompting reforms.

- Significant intellectual reaction against Enlightenment philosophy that prioritized science, reason, and skepticism.

Key Features of Romanticism:

1. Emphasis on Individuality and Subjectivity

   - Celebrated one's creative gifts and personal experiences.

   - Contrasted with the neoclassical ideals that emphasized order, restraint, and universal truths.

2. Reaction against Enlightenment Ideals

   - Prioritized emotion over reason.

   - Valued imagination over rationality.

   - Believed empirical knowledge couldn't reveal life's mysteries.

3. Promotion of Passion, Imagination, and Freedom

   - Championed virtues of passion, imagination, and personal freedom.

   - Emphasized sensory experiences and spiritual connections.

4. Fascination with the Supernatural and the Exotic

   - Interest in myths, the gothic, and exotic cultures.

   - Devotion to exploring the unknown and mysterious.

5. Devotion to Beauty and Nature

   - Reverence for natural landscapes and phenomena.

   - Love for rural, countryside settings as opposed to urban life's challenges.

Conclusion:

- Romantic literature reflected the new spirit of the age, extolling the worth and significance of the ‘individual’.

- The Romantic Age offered a rich tapestry of literary forms and features that celebrated emotion, imagination, nature, and personal freedom, diverging from the rational and empirical focus of the Enlightenment era.

Major Prose Writing of the Age: Periodical Essay and Literary Criticism

- Periodicals: Established a "print culture" in England during the eighteenth century.

  - Coffee-house Culture: Coffee-houses like those frequented by Richard Steele and Joseph Addison circulated newspapers such as The Spectator and The Tattler.

  - Newspapers: Examples include The Examiner (poetry, literary criticism, politics) and The Spectator (socio-politics, culture).

  - Reviews Notable reviews were the Edinburgh Review, Quarterly Review, Westminster Review, Critical Review, Monthly Review, and Edinburgh Review. They covered various subjects, including literature.

  - Magazines: Popular magazines like Gentleman’s Magazine (true crime stories) and Ladies’ Diary (history, geography, gossip) catered to different readerships.

  - Literary Magazines: The Athenaeum, Blackwood’s Edinburgh Magazine London Magazine, and New Monthly Magazine were prominent, featuring leading writers of the time and publishing notable works.

- Three Distinct Forms of Romantic Essay:

  1. Political Essay: Focused on political aspects, e.g., Coleridge's essays in Morning Post and Courier.

  2. Familiar Essay: Personal essays on various topics, e.g., Lamb's Essays of Elia, Hazlitt's essays on romantic travels.

  3. Historical-Cultural Review: E.g., Thomas Carlyle’s “The Sign of the Times”.

- Fiction:

  - Novels: Emerged prominently between 1770 to 1830.

    - Major Novelists: Jane Austen, Burney, Maria Edgeworth, Ann Radcliffe, Walter Scott, Mary Shelley.

    - Significant Women Novelists: Jane Porter, Frances Burney, Susan Ferrier.

  - Gothic and Sensational Novels: Included works like The Mysteries of Udolpho, Vathek, Caleb Williams, The Monk, Frankenstein, Northanger Abbey, and Nightmare Abbey.

  - Realistic Novels: Jane Austen's works provided realistic portrayals of English life.

  - Regional Novels: Works like Maria Edgeworth’s Castle Rackrent and Sydney Owenson’s The Wild Irish Girl: A National Tale were set in specific locales like Ireland.

Lake Poets:

- Location: The Lake District in North West England, a scenic area inspiring the Romantic poets.

- Leading Figures: William Wordsworth, Samuel Taylor Coleridge, Robert Southey.

- Associated Poets/Writers: Dorothy Wordsworth, Charles Lloyd, Hartley Coleridge, John Wilson, Thomas De Quincey.

- Inspired Writers (Not Part of Lake Poets): Felicia Hemans, Walter Scott, James Payn, Bryan Procter, Norman Nicholson.

Conclusion

The Romantic Age was characterized by its ideals, features, and cultural history. It was an intellectual movement that significantly contributed to English Literature, offering diverse literary forms and practices.

For Whom the Bell Tolls

 

Ernest Hemingway's "For Whom the Bell Tolls" is set during the Spanish Civil War and follows the protagonist, Robert Jordan, an American dynamiter who is attached to a band of Republican guerrillas. Jordan's mission is to blow up a bridge behind enemy lines to aid an upcoming offensive. As he prepares for the mission, Jordan becomes involved with the guerrilla group and forms a deep connection with Maria, a young Spanish woman who has suffered greatly under the fascist regime. The novel explores themes of love, duty, honor, and the individual's role in the larger struggle for justice and freedom. As the mission progresses, Jordan faces internal conflicts and external challenges that test his resolve and beliefs.

Characters:

1. Robert Jordan: An American dynamiter and protagonist of the novel. He is dedicated to his mission but struggles with doubts and existential questions.

2. Maria: A young Spanish woman who joins Jordan's group after escaping from the fascists. She becomes Jordan's lover and symbolizes innocence and resilience.

3. Pablo: The leader of the guerrilla band, who initially opposes Jordan's mission but later becomes an essential ally.

4. Pilar: Pablo's wife and a strong, maternal figure within the group. She provides wisdom and support to Jordan.

5. Anselmo: An elderly guerrilla fighter who serves as Jordan's guide and mentor.

Themes:

1. Duty and Sacrifice: The novel explores the sacrifices individuals make for their beliefs and the greater good, as seen through Jordan's commitment to his mission and the guerrillas' fight against fascism.

2. Love and Connection: Jordan's relationship with Maria highlights the power of love and human connection amidst the chaos of war.

3. Honor and Morality: Characters grapple with questions of honor and morality, particularly in their actions during wartime and the implications of violence.

4. Individual vs. Collective: Jordan struggles with his role as an individual within the larger collective of the guerrilla group and the broader Spanish Civil War.

5. Nature and Wilderness: The natural landscape serves as both a backdrop and a symbol of the characters' struggles, reflecting the harsh realities of war and the untamed wilderness of the human spirit.

Symbols:

1. The Bridge: Symbolizes the connection between the characters' past and future, as well as the potential for destruction and renewal.

2. The Bell: Represents the tolling of fate and mortality, reminding characters of their mortality and the impermanence of life.

3. The Mountains: Symbolize both refuge and danger, providing a backdrop to the characters' struggles and offering a sanctuary from the chaos of war.

4. The Horse: Represents innocence and vulnerability, particularly through Maria's connection with the horse she cares for.

Overall, "For Whom the Bell Tolls" is a powerful exploration of love, duty, and the human spirit in the mid st of war and conflict.

Joys of Motherhood by Buchi Emecheta

 

      Buchi Emecheta (1944-2017) was a Nigerian-born British author known for her novels exploring themes of gender, race, and identity, particularly within the context of Nigerian and African diasporic experiences. Her works often depict the struggles of African women in patriarchal societies and the challenges they face in navigating cultural expectations and personal aspirations. Some of her notable novels include "The Joys of Motherhood," "Second-Class Citizen," and "The Bride Price." Emecheta's writing style is characterized by its straightforwardness and emotional depth, making her an influential voice in African and feminist literature.

Joys of Motherhood

Summary

Nnu Ego, the protagonist, stumbles across the Yaba compound, almost delusional with grief. She makes her way to the waterfront, heading to Carter Bridge, intent on throwing herself off.

The action shifts to twenty-five years previous to this moment, in the village of Ogboli in the Ibuza homeland. Agbadi, the esteemed local chief, is enamored by the one woman he cannot possess, the beautiful and strong-willed Ona. During a hunting trip, Agbadi is gored by an injured elephant and not expected to live long. Ona slowly nurses him back to health. As he heals, he humiliates her in the compound by loudly forcing his sexual attentions on her. She becomes pregnant as the result of this union. If it is a boy, the child will belong to Ona’s father, but if it is a girl, Agbadi will accept responsibility. When Nnu Ego is born, a medicine man concludes that her chi, or guiding spirit, is the slave girl who was forcibly killed and buried with one of Agbadi’s wives. Within the year, Ona dies during childbirth.

Sixteen years later, Nnu Ego is of marrying age. She is first betrothed to Amatokwu. When she does not become pregnant, relations cool between her and Amatokwu, and she is soon moved to another hut to make room for a new wife. Nnu Ego is relegated to working in the fields and taking care of the new wife’s infant son. When Amatokwu catches Nnu Ego breast-feeding the hungry child, he beats her. Nnu Ego returns to her father to rest and recover, and the marriage ties are severed. Dedicated to finding his daughter a better match, Agbadi arranges a marriage between Nnu Ego and Nnaife, who lives in faraway Lagos. Nnaife’s older brother escorts Nnu Ego to the city and her new life with Nnaife.

Nnaife and Nnu Ego live in the Yaba compound, where Nnaife does laundry for the Meers, a British couple. Happy in her marriage, Nnu Ego becomes pregnant and gives birth to a son, Ngozi. She also starts her own business selling cigarettes and matches beside the road. One morning, she discovers Ngozi dead in their one-room home. Distraught and devoid of hope, she rushes to the waterfront to throw herself off Carter Bridge. Nwakusor, an Ibo man coming off his shift at work, prevents her with the help of the crowd that has gathered.

Recovering from Ngozi’s death is a slow and painful process. Eventually, Nnu Ego becomes pregnant again and gives birth to Oshia. She decides to focus solely on raising the child instead of making extra income at her market stall. But economic pressures set in when the Meers return to England and Nnaife is suddenly out of a job. Nnu Ego resumes her local trade in cigarettes. Nnaife eventually secures a position that takes him far from home, working for a group of Englishmen. While he is away, British soldiers enter the abandoned compound and tell Nnu Ego that she and Oshia must vacate the premises. Nnu Ego takes a rented room in another part of town, where she gives birth to another son, Adim. Left on their own, the family slowly succumbs to malnutrition. Neighbors step in to help. Nnu Ego returns from her search for more contraband cigarettes to find that her husband has returned, flush with money. Nnu Ego secures a permanent stall in the marketplace and pressures Nnaife to find his next job.

One evening, Nnaife’s friends arrive with the news that his brother has died in Ibuza. Nnaife has inherited all of his brother’s wives, but only one will come to live with them in Lagos. Adaku arrives with her daughter, setting off tensions and rivalry between the two women. As Nnu Ego tries to sleep nearby, Nnaife invokes his rights as a husband and has sexual relations with Adaku. Nnaife starts a new job cutting grass for the railroad. With less space and more mouths to feed, Nnu Ego and Adaku become pregnant around the same time. Nnu Ego gives birth to twin girls, while Adaku’s son dies shortly after he is born. Feeling they are not being given enough money to support the household, the women go on strike. Nnu Ego’s firm resolve eventually wavers, and she cooks a large conciliatory meal. But Nnaife does not come home to enjoy it. He has been forced to join the army and is shipped off to India and then Burma to fight in World War II.

With Nnaife away and his pay partially secure in a savings account, Nnu Ego, again pregnant, takes her family to Ibuza and to the deathbed of her father. After his two funerals, Nnu Ego is unwilling to return to Lagos. However, Adankwo, the eldest wife of Nnaife’s older brother, urges her to return to the city to keep an eye on Adako. Nnu Ego returns to find that Nnaife had been home for a brief visit and had left some money for her that she failed to receive. Relations between Nnu Ego and Adako grow increasingly strained, culminating in Nnu Ego’s rude and brusque treatment of one of Adako’s visiting cousins. When Nnaife’s friends step in to resolve the conflict, Adako decides that she and her daughters will move out on their own. Impoverished once again, Nnu Ego spends the last of her savings before learning she had not been receiving her husband’s yearly stipends due to an institutional error. Nnaife returns and spends most of this windfall. Though Nnu Ego is pregnant again, Nnaife decides to return to Ibuza, where he impregnates Adankwo and returns with a teenage bride, Okpo. Nnu Ego gives birth to twin girls.

The family moves to a mud house in another part of town. First Oshia and then Adim announce their intentions of furthering their educations. When Oshia tells Nnaife he has won a scholarship to study in the United States, Nnaife denounces him for his dereliction of his filial duty. Taiwo’s marriage is arranged to an Ibo clerk, but Kehinde runs away to marry a Yoruba. Hearing the news, Nnaife flies into a rage and attempts to murder Kehinde’s father-in-law with his cutlass. Nnaife is put in jail, tried, and sentenced to five years, a stint that is reduced provided he return to Ibuza after his release. Nnu Ego has also returned to her homeland, where she dies several years later, alone by the roadside. Oshia returns to honor Nnu Ego with a costly funeral, befitting her sacrifices as a mother.

Characters :

In "The Joys of Motherhood" by Buchi Emecheta, some characters play more prominent roles in the narrative, distinguishing them as major characters, while others have more peripheral roles, categorizing them as minor characters.

Major Characters:

1. Nnu Ego: The central protagonist whose life experiences anchor the novel.

2. Nnaife: Nnu Ego's husband, a key figure in her life and the unfolding of the story.

3. Amatokwu: Nnu Ego's first husband, whose marriage with her sets significant events in motion.

4. Ngozi: Nnu Ego and Nnaife's firstborn son, whose death deeply affects Nnu Ego's journey.

5. Oshia:  Surviving son of Nnu Ego and Nnaife, symbolizing the next generation's challenges.

6. Adaku: The widow whose arrival influences the dynamics within Nnu Ego's family.

Minor Characters:

1. Taiwo and Kehinde: Nnu Ego's twin daughters, with less central roles compared to their brothers.

2. Adankwo: Eldest wife of Nnaife's brother, contributing to the story's development.

3. Neighbors, Friends, and Acquaintances: Various characters who impact Nnu Ego's life but play more supporting roles.

The major characters drive the central themes and conflicts in the novel, while the minor characters contribute to the broader portrayal of Nigerian society and its complexities.

Themes :

"The Joys of Motherhood" by Buchi Emecheta explores several themes that resonate throughout the narrative. Here are some key themes in the novel:

1. Motherhood: The central theme revolves around the challenges and joys of motherhood, depicting the sacrifices and struggles faced by Nnu Ego as she navigates societal expectations and personal aspirations.

2. Gender Roles: The novel delves into traditional gender roles and the expectations placed on women in Nigerian society. It highlights the limitations and pressures women face in a patriarchal culture.

3. Cultural Change:Emecheta examines the impact of cultural shifts and colonialism on traditional Nigerian values and lifestyles. The characters grapple with changing societal norms and the clash between tradition and modernity.

4. Identity and Belonging: The characters, particularly Nnu Ego, struggle with questions of identity and a sense of belonging as they navigate the complex intersections of tradition, colonial influence, and evolving societal expectations.

5. Economic Struggles: The novel portrays the economic challenges faced by Nnu Ego and her family, reflecting broader issues of poverty and inequality within Nigerian society.

6. Generational Conflict: The tension between generations is explored, especially through the experiences of Nnu Ego's children, who face a different world and set of challenges compared to their parents.

7. Colonial Impact: The narrative touches on the consequences of colonialism, portraying how external forces disrupt traditional ways of life and contribute to societal changes.

8. Sacrifice: Nnu Ego's life is marked by numerous sacrifices for her family and children, reflecting the broader theme of sacrifice in the pursuit of societal and familial expectations.

These themes collectively contribute to the rich tapestry of the novel, providing a nuanced exploration of the complexities of life in Nigeria during a period of significant cultural and social transformation.

Symbols :

"The Joys of Motherhood" by Buchi Emecheta incorporates various symbols that deepen the narrative and convey underlying themes. Here are some notable symbols in the novel:

1. Carter Bridge and the Waterfront: The bridge represents a threshold between life and death. Nnu Ego contemplates suicide at the waterfront, symbolizing the immense struggles and despair she faces as a mother.

2. Ngozi's Death:The death of Nnu Ego's firstborn, Ngozi, symbolizes the harsh realities of life, the fragility of existence, and the sacrifices demanded by societal expectations.

3. The Chi:Nnu Ego's chi, or guiding spirit, represents the influence of ancestral spirits and the interconnectedness of past and present. The chi is identified as the spirit of a slave girl, highlighting the historical and cultural complexities faced by the characters.

4. The City of Lagos: Lagos serves as a symbol of modernity and change. It represents the clash between traditional Nigerian values and the disruptive impact of colonialism, reflecting the broader societal transformation.

5. The Mud House: The move to a mud house signifies the characters' descent into poverty and the challenges they face in a rapidly changing urban landscape.

6. The Twins (Taiwo and Kehinde):The birth of twins to Nnu Ego symbolizes the ongoing struggle between tradition and modernity. The twins, with their unique paths and choices, represent the changing roles of women and the challenges faced by the next generation.

7. The British Meers: The British couple for whom Nnaife works symbolize the colonial influence and the economic disparities between the colonizers and the colonized.

8. The Railroad and Grass Cutting: Nnaife's job cutting grass for the railroad symbolizes the exploitation and harsh working conditions faced by the native population under colonial rule.

These symbols contribute to the novel's rich tapestry, adding layers of meaning and depth to the exploration of motherhood, tradition, and societal  change in Nigeria.